Executive functioning in college students with anxiety and depression: a multivariate analysis
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.13129/2282-1619/mjcp-3596Keywords:
Neuropsychology, Anxiety, Depression, University students.Abstract
Background: Executive functioning regulates, integrates and coordinates cognitive processes allowing the achievement of goals. Several research studies determined that anxiety and depression in College students interconnect bidirectionally with executive functions.
Objective: The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between anxiety, depression and executive functioning in a sample of college students from the city of Manizales-Colombia.
Method: This study used a simple probabilistic cluster sampling, a sample of 224 students from different universities in the city of Manizales was formed, the average age was 21 years, 75.9% of the sample was female. Updating (WAIS IV Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), shifting (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test - WCST), inhibitory control (Colors and Words Test - STROOP), anxiety (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory - STAI) and depression (Beck Depression Inventory II), were measured.
Results: Using multivariate analysis, specific differences were found between executive domains and some emotional variables.
Discussion: Trait anxiety correlates negatively with working memory and increases the probability of presenting a high level of shifting, as well as depression increases the probability of inhibition was above average.
References
Ajilchi, B., & Nejati, V. (2017). Executive functions in students with depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms. Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, 8(3), 223–232. https://doi.org/10.18869/nirp.bcn.8.3.223
Alfonso, S. V., & Lonigan, C. J. (2021). Trait anxiety and adolescent’s academic achievement: The role of executive function. Learning and Individual Differences, 85(October 2020), 101941. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101941
American Psychological Asociation (12th October 2022) https://www.apa.org/search?query=depression.
Ardila, A., Rosselli, M., (2019) Neuropsicología clínica, segunda edición, editorial manual moderno, México.
Atabek, O., Şavklıyıldız, A., Orhon, G., Colak, O. H., Özdemir, A., & Şenol, U. (2022). The effect of anxiety on Mathematical Thinking: An fmri study on 12th-grade students. Learning and Motivation, 77, 101779. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2021.101779
Bardeen, J. R., Gorday, J. Y., & Weathers, F. W. (2022). Executive functioning deficits exacerbate posttraumatic stress symptoms: A longitudinal mediation model. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 87, 102556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2022.10255
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A. y Brown, G. K. (2003). BDI-II. Inventario de Depresión de Beck, Segunda edición, Pearson educación, Madrid.
Cao, J., Si, F., Li, X., & Guo, C. (2022). The neural correlates of social anxiety modulating conflict-driven cognitive control: An ERP study. Neuroscience Letters, 783, 136721. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2022.136721
Chung, K. K. H., Liu, H., McBride, C., Wong, A. M. Y., & Lo, J. C. M. (2017). How socioeconomic status, executive functioning and verbal interactions contribute to early academic achievement in Chinese children. Educational Psychology, 37(4), 402–420. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2016.1179264
Coussement, C., De Longueville, X., & Heeren, A. (2022). Attentional networks in co-occurring generalized anxiety disorder and major depression disorder: Towards a staging approach to the executive control deficits. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 113, 152294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2021.152294
Culot, C., Corlazzoli, G., Fantini-Hauwel, C., & Gevers, W. (2021). The relation between task-relatedness of anxiety and metacognitive performance. Consciousness and Cognition, 94, 103191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2021.103191
Deng, J., Zhou, F., Hou, W., Silver, Z., Wong, C. Y., Chang, O., Drakos, A., Zuo, Q. K., & Huang, E. (2021). The prevalence of depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms and sleep disturbance in higher education students during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychiatry Research, 301, 113863. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113863
Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadísticas (agosto 2021) Salud mental en Colombia, un análisis de los efectos de la pandemia. https://www.dane.gov.co/files/investigaciones/notas-estadisticas/ago-2021-nota-estadistica-salud-mental-en-colombia-analisis-efectos-pandemia.pdf
Dickson, K. S., Ciesla, J. A., & Zelic, K. (2017). The Role of Executive Functioning in Adolescent Rumination and Depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 41(1), 62–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-016-9802-0
Dobson, E. T., Croarkin, P. E., Schroeder, H. K., Varney, S. T., Mossman, S. A., Cecil, K., & Strawn, J. R. (2021). Bridging anxiety and depression: A network approach in anxious adolescents. Journal of Affective Disorders, 280, 305–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.11.027
du Pont, A., Rhee, S. H., Corley, R. P., Hewitt, J. K., & Friedman, N. P. (2019). Rumination and executive functions: Understanding cognitive vulnerability for psychopathology. Journal of Affective Disorders, 256, 550–559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.06.026
Eid, R. S., Gobinath, A. R., & Galea, L. A. M. (2019). Sex differences in depression: Insights from clinical and preclinical studies. Progress in Neurobiology, 176, 86–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2019.01.006
Forrest, S., Siegert, R., Krägeloh, C., Landon, J., & Medvedev, O. (2021). Generalizability theory distinguishes between state and trait anxiety. Psychological Assessment, 33(11), 1080-1088. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0001060
Friedman, N. P., & Miyake, A. (2017). Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual differences as a window on cognitive structure. Cortex, 86, 186–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023
Friedman, N. P., & Robbins, T. W. (2022). The role of prefrontal cortex in cognitive control and executive function. Neuropsychopharmacology, 47(1), 72–89. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-021-01132-0
Gao, W., Ping, S., & Liu, X. (2020). Gender differences in depression, anxiety, and stress among college students: A longitudinal study from China. Journal of Affective Disorders, 263(5), 292–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.11.121
Gilbert, K. E., Tonge, N. A., & Thompson, R. J. (2019). Associations between depression, anxious arousal and manifestations of psychological inflexibility. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 62, 88–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2018.09.006
Golden, C., (2010). STROOP Test de Colores y Palabras, Publicaciones de psicología aplicada. Madrid: TEA ediciones.
Gustavson, D. E., Franz, C. E., Panizzon, M. S., Reynolds, C. A., Xian, H., Jacobson, K. C., Toomey, R., Lyons, M. J., & Kremen, W. S. (2019). Genetic and Environmental Associations Among Executive Functions, Trait Anxiety, and Depression Symptoms in Middle Age. Clinical Psychological Science, 7(1), 127–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702618805075
Härpfer, K., Spychalski, D., Kathmann, N., & Riesel, A. (2021). Diverging patterns of EEG alpha asymmetry in anxious apprehension and anxious arousal. Biological Psychology, 162, 108111.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2021.108111
Heaton, R. K., Chelune, C. J., Talley, J. L., Kay, G. G., & Curtis, G. (1997). Wisconsin Card Shorting Test. Odess, Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources (Adaptación española, 1997). Madrid: TEA Ediciones.
Hernández Sampieri, R., Fernández Collado, C., & Pilar Baptista Lucio, M. (2014). Metodología de la investigación. McGraw-Hill.
Hu, Y., & Dolcos, S. (2017). Trait anxiety mediates the link between inferior frontal cortex volume and negative affective bias in healthy adults. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 12(5), 775–782. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsx008
Huang, Q., Hou, L., Zhang, W., & Zhou, R. (2022). The dysregulation of top-down control in individuals with high test anxiety: A resting state fmri study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 151, 649–656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.05.023
Ivanovic, D., Zamorano, F., Soto-Icaza, P., Rojas, T., Larraín, C., Silva, C., Almagià, A., Bustamante, C., Arancibia, V., Villagrán, F., Valenzuela, R., Barrera, C., & Billeke, P. (2022). Brain structural parameters correlate with university selection test outcomes in Chilean High School graduates. Scientific Reports, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-24958-0
Kaya, S., & McCabe, C. (2019). What role does the prefrontal cortex play in the processing of negative and positive stimuli in adolescent depression? Brain Sciences, 9(5), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9050104
Kim, H., Rackoff, G. N., Fitzsimmons-Craft, E. E., Shin, K. E., Zainal, N. H., Schwob, J. T., Eisenberg, D., Wilfley, D. E., Taylor, C. B., & Newman, M. G. (2022). College Mental Health Before and During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Results From a Nationwide Survey. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 46(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-021-10241-5
König, N., Steber, S., Borowski, A., Bliem, H. R., & Rossi, S. (2021). Neural processing of cognitive control in an emotionally neutral context in anxiety patients. Brain Sciences, 11(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11050543
Kryza-Lacombe, M., Tanzini, E., Yali, A. M., & O’Neill, S. (2021). Executive functioning and the pursuit of happiness. Learning and Motivation, 76, 101758. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lmot.2021.101758
Kryza-Lacombe, M., Palumbo, D., Wakschlag, L. S., Dougherty, L. R., & Wiggins, J. L. (2022). Executive functioning moderates neural mechanisms of irritability during reward processing in youth. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 323, 111483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2022.111483
Leonard, K., & Abramovitch, A. (2019). Cognitive functions in young adults with generalized anxiety disorder. European Psychiatry, 56, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.10.008
Liang, C.-W. (2021). Inhibitory attentional control under cognitive load in social anxiety: An investigation using a novel dual-task paradigm. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 144, 103925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2021.103925
Majeed, N. M., Chua, Y. J., Kothari, M., Kaur, M., Quek, F. Y. X., Ng, M. H. S., Ng, W. Q., & Hartanto, A. (2023). Anxiety disorders and executive functions: A three-level meta-analysis of reaction time and accuracy. Psychiatry Research Communications, 3(1), 100100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psycom.2022.100100
Mance, G., Grant, K., Roberts, D., Carter, J., Turek, C., Adam, E., & Thorpe, R. (2019). Environmental stress and socioeconomic status: Does parent and adolescent stress influence executive functioning in urban youth?. Journal Of Prevention &Amp; Intervention In The Community, 47(4), 279-294. https://doi.org/10.1080/10852352.2019.1617386
Minihan, S., Samimi, Z., & Schweizer, S. (2021). The effectiveness of affective compared to neutral working memory training in university students with Test Anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 147, 103974. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2021.103974
Morales, S., Zeytinoglu, S., Buzzell, G. A., Valadez, E. A., Troller-Renfree, S. V., Bowers, M. E., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Degnan, K. A., Almas, A. N., Pine, D. S., & Fox, N. A. (2022). Neurocognitive Profiles in Adolescence Predict Subsequent Anxiety Trajectories During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 7(2), 192–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.06.004
Mou, Q., Zhuang, J., Gao, Y., Zhong, Y., Lu, Q., Gao, F., & Zhao, M. (2022). The relationship between social anxiety and academic engagement among Chinese college students: A serial mediation model. Journal of Affective Disorders, 311, 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.04.158
Oh, H., Marinovich, C., Rajkumar, R., Besecker, M., Zhou, S., Jacob, L., Koyanagi, A., & Smith, L. (2021). COVID-19 dimensions are related to depression and anxiety among US college students: Findings from the Healthy Minds Survey 2020. Journal of Affective Disorders, 292, 270–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.05.121
Pluck, G., Córdova, M. A., Bock, C., Chalen, I., & Trueba, A. F. (2021). Socio-economic status, executive functions, and theory of mind ability in adolescents: Relationships with language ability and cortisol. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 39(1), 19–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12354
Rifkin, L. S., Giollabhui, N. M., Kendall, P. C., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2021). Attention, rumination and depression in youth with negative inferential styles: A prospective study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 291, 209–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.04.095
Sluis, R. A., Boschen, M. J., Neumann, D. L., & Murphy, K. (2017). Anticipatory processing in social anxiety: Investigation using attentional control theory. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 57, 172–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbtep.2017.05.009
Spielberger, C., & Gorsuch, R. (1983). State-trait anxiety inventory. Consulting Psychologists Press.
ter Meulen, W. G., Draisma, S., van Hemert, A. M., Schoevers, R. A., Kupka, R. W., Beekman, A. T. F., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2021). Depressive and anxiety disorders in concert–A synthesis of findings on comorbidity in the NESDA study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 284, 85–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.02.004
Valenti, L., Garcia, R. B., & Galera, C. (2021). Neutral and negative mood induction in executive tasks of working memory. Psicologia: Reflexao e Critica, 34(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41155-021-00196-7
Wechsler, D. (2008). WAIS-IV, Wechsler adult intelligence scale. Pearson.
Warren, S. L., Heller, W., & Miller, G. A. (2021). The Structure of Executive Dysfunction in Depression and Anxiety. Journal of Affective Disorders, 279, 208–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.09.132
Wen, Y., Zhang, X., Xu, Y., Qiao, D., Guo, S., Sun, N., Yang, C., Han, M., & Liu, Z. (2021). Cognitive Impairment in Adolescent Major Depressive Disorder With Nonsuicidal Self-Injury: Evidence Based on Multi-indicator ERPs. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 15, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.637407
Zainal, N. H., & Newman, M. G. (2018). Executive function and other cognitive deficits are distal risk factors of generalized anxiety disorder 9 years later. Psychological Medicine, 48(12), 2045–2053. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717003579
Zainal, N. H., & Newman, M. G. (2021). Within-person increase in pathological worry predicts future depletion of unique executive functioning domains. Psychological Medicine, 51(10), 1676–1686. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720000422
Zhang, S. Y., Qiu, S. W., Pan, M. R., Zhao, M. J., Zhao, R. J., Liu, L., Li, H. M., Wang, Y. F., & Qian, Q. J. (2021). Adult ADHD, executive function, depressive/anxiety symptoms, and quality of life: A serial two-mediator model. Journal of Affective Disorders, 293, 97–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2021.06.020
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Articles and conference papers published in Mediterranean Journal of Clinical Psychology are distributed under the terms and conditions of a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported License. Correspondingly, authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
